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Numerical Study of the Fluid Dynamics and Momentum Transport in a Side-Blown Molten Pool
Li Dongbo;Deng Ge;Liu Wei;Zhu Yin;Zhou Rongle;Huang Haochen;Zhang Peipei;Hu Jianhang;Large-scale copper side-blown smelting furnaces commonly experience excessively strong local disturbance near the tuyere zone, insufficient mixing in distant regions of the bath, and unstable free-surface behavior, which together reduce momentum transfer efficiency and impair overall smelting performance. To investigate these issues, a three-phase numerical model of gas-matte-slag flow was established based on an industrial side-blown furnace. The Volume of Fluid(VOF) method was coupled with the Realizable k-ε turbulence model to simulate the transient flow behavior in the melt pool under different lance immersion depths. The numerical model was validated by comparison with a visual water-model experiment, and the simulated bubble evolution agreed well with the observed processes of bubble formation, detachment, and breakup, confirming the reliability of the simulation method. The results show that lance immersion depth has a significant effect on jet penetration, surface fluctuation, bubble motion, and bath stirring behavior. As immersion depth increases, the jet penetration depth increases correspondingly, indicating stronger transfer of gas momentum into the bath interior. In contrast, the average fluctuation height of the slag surface first increases and then decreases, reaching its maximum at an immersion depth of 50 mm, which suggests that moderate immersion intensifies direct disturbance to the free surface, while deeper immersion shifts the momentum transfer zone downward and reduces surface instability. Bubble motion in the side-blown melt pool undergoes a continuous evolution process involving formation, upward rise, coalescence, breakup, and dispersion. In the initial stage, bubbles are concentrated near the tuyere and sidewall region, while with continuous gas injection they expand into the slag layer and gradually form a widely distributed dispersed bubble field. This process enhances gas-liquid interfacial contact, local turbulence, and internal circulation, demonstrating that bubbles are not only carriers of jet momentum but also the dominant factor controlling bath mixing and interface renewal. Dimensionless analysis further shows that the Ga-Eo relationship maintains a consistent increasing trend under different immersion depths, indicating that the fundamental force balance governing bubble behavior remains unchanged. However, immersion depth alters the distribution range of bubble motion characteristics. Under shallow immersion conditions, especially at 20 mm, the proportion of high-Re bubbles is greater, reflecting stronger inertial effects, faster rising velocities, and more vigorous bubble movement. With increasing immersion depth, the proportion of high-Re bubbles decreases, indicating that bubble motion becomes more moderate and concentrated. The stirring performance of the melt pool is also strongly influenced by immersion depth. Shallow immersion conditions produce lower dead-zone fractions, higher average velocity, and stronger vortex intensity, indicating more effective momentum transfer and better overall mixing performance. By contrast, deeper immersion increases the dead-zone fraction and weakens large-scale circulation, even though local penetration is enhanced. In general, lance immersion depth plays a critical role in controlling the hydrodynamic behavior and momentum transport characteristics of a side-blown smelting bath. The present study provides useful theoretical support for optimizing lance arrangement, improving bath mixing, and enhancing the operational efficiency of industrial copper side-blown smelting furnaces.
Study on the Influence of Slag Layer Thickness on Stirring Performance and Its Optimization in a Copper Side-Blown Smelting Furnace
Song Yingjun;Li Yinghua;Xiong Guotao;Li Xiaoyu;Zhou Wei;Zhou Weixin;Yang Shiliang;Slag layer thickness is a critical operational parameter that governs multiphase flow and mass transfer efficiency in oxygen-enriched side-blown copper smelting furnaces. To elucidate its role in regulating bath mixing and gas-liquid interaction, a three-dimensional numerical model was developed based on computational fluid dynamics(CFD). The volume of fluid(VOF) multiphase model coupled with the Realizable k-ε turbulence model was employed to simulate transient gas-liquid two-phase flow under five slag layer thicknesses(0.85, 0.95, 1.05, 1.15, and 1.25 m). The study systematically investigates the effects of slag layer thickness on gas phase distribution, gas-liquid interfacial area, velocity field, dead zone volume, and splashing behavior. The results show that slag layer thickness plays a decisive role in bubble dynamics and flow structure. Under thin slag conditions(0.85 m), the gas jet penetrates deeply into the matte layer with limited lateral dispersion, resulting in a narrow gas-liquid contact zone and large stagnant regions near the sidewalls, with a dead zone volume fraction as high as 13.26%. At 0.95 m, only slight improvements in gas dispersion are observed, and the flow field remains asymmetric. Moderate thicknesses of 1.05 m and 1.15 m significantly prolong bubble rising paths, promote secondary breakup and uniform gas distribution, and expand the gas-liquid interfacial area to peak values above 20 m2. The dead zone proportion drops to 9.2% at 1.05 m and further to 7.8% at 1.15 m, while the high-intensity stirring zone expand notably, indicating enhanced turbulence and improved interphase mass transfer. Flow symmetry is well maintained at 1.05 m, with stable and uniform circulation. In contrast, at 1.25 m, although the interfacial area continues to increase, gas phase segregation occurs, leading to flow asymmetry, localizes dead zones in the lower bath, and significantly intensifies splashing with large fluctuations. Quantitative analysis of time-averaged gas holdup along the bath height reveals that moderate thickness(1.05–1.15 m) enables a more uniform vertical gas distribution, avoiding the localized accumulation observed in thinner or thicker slag layers. The horizontal penetration depth of the gas jet decreases monotonically with increasing slag thickness, from 186.85 mm at 0.85 m to 181.28 mm at 1.25 m. Thin slag allows deeper horizontal penetration but fails to sustain sufficient gas-liquid contact time, whereas thicker slag restricts lateral spread but enhances vertical mixing. The optimal balance between penetration and dispersion is achieved at 1.05 m, where the horizontal penetration remains at 183.36 mm and gas-liquid interaction is both intensive and uniform. Splashing behavior is also strongly influenced by slag thickness. After an initial sharp peak due to jet impact, all cases reach a quasi-steady state after 3 s. At 0.85 m and 0.95 m, splashing remains low but mixing efficiency is poor. At 1.05 m and 1.15 m, splashing levels are moderately higher yet stable, indicating effective interfacial agitation without excessive instability. At 1.25 m, splashing becomes erratic and intense, reflecting loss of process control. The evolution of gas-liquid contact area further confirms the advantage of moderate thickness. The 1.25 m case achieves the highest interfacial area, but at the cost of flow uniformity and stability. Considering all quantitative indicators— gas holdup uniformity, flow symmetry, dead zone fraction, splashing control, horizontal penetration, and interfacial area— the slag layer thickness of 1.05 m is identified as the optimal operating condition, offering the most balanced performance. The thickness of 1.15 m also performs well but with slightly reduced flow symmetry and increased splashing. Therefore, to achieve efficient and stable smelting operations, the slag layer thickness should be preferentially controlled within the range of 1.05–1.15 m, with 1.05 m being the best choice. This study reveals the intrinsic mechanisms by which slag layer thickness regulates bath stirring performance and provides a scientific basis for operational parameter optimization and process design in large-scale oxygen-enriched side-blown copper smelting furnaces.
Research on the Impurity Removal Behavior of Scattered Anode Electrolysis of Crude Lead
He Shasha;Bu Penglin;Zhang Xu;Yang Bin;Zha Guozheng;Jiang Wenlong;Key Laboratory of Vacuum Metallurgy for Nonferrous Metals of Yunnan Province;National Engineering Research Center of Vacuum Metallurgy;The traditional crude lead refining process requires pyrometallurgical pretreatment to remove impurities before electrolysis, which leads to long process flow, high energy consumption, large amount of smelting slag generation and easy loss of valuable metals. To solve these problems, a short-process electrolysis technology with scattered anode for crude lead refining was developed, and the feasibility of direct electrolysis of smelted crude lead without pyrometallurgical refining was verified. Linear sweep voltammetry and constant current polarization method were adopted to investigate the dissolution characteristics of impurity elements in crude lead under different hydrofluosilicic acid concentrations and temperatures, and the influence of stirring speed on the concentration polarization of crude lead dissolution was systematically explored. The crude lead sample used in the experiment was the smelted crude lead from a bottom-blown furnace in a lead smelter in southern China, with a lead content of 93.90% and containing impurities such as Cu, Sb, Bi, Ag and Au. The scattered anode with particle size from 0.5 cm to 2 cm was prepared by water quenching granulation method at 550 ℃. Electrochemical tests were carried out with a three-electrode system, in which saturated calomel electrode was used as the reference electrode, graphite sheet as the counter electrode, and the target metal sheet as the working electrode. Electrolysis experiments were conducted in an acrylic electrolytic cell with a stable voltage DC power supply, and the effects of hydrofluosilicic acid concentration(120— 240 g/L), electrolyte temperature(20—35 ℃) and stirring speed(0—450 r/min) on the anode dissolution behavior were studied with gelatin and β-naphthol as additives and the Pb2+ concentration in electrolyte controlled at 100 g/L. The dissolution order of metals in the hydrofluosilicic acid system is determined as Sn>Pb>Sb>Bi>Cu>Ag, and the optimal electrolysis conditions for impurity removal and quality improvement of crude lead are confirmed: the hydrofluosilicic acid concentration is 180 gL, the electrolysis temperature is 30 ℃, and the stirring speed is 450 r/min. Under the above conditions, the electrolysis is conducted for 48 h, and the cathode current efficiency reachs 98.91%, the anode residual rate is only 10.85%, and the purity of cathode lead reachs 99.99%, meeting the 4N standard requirement for refined lead. The electrolysis process shows stable cell voltage, clear electrolyte without turbidity or scaling, and the cathode deposit contains only 6.08 g/t Cu, 6.91 g/t Sb and 44.94 g/t Bi, with other impurities such as Zn, Ag, Sn and As all lower than 5 g/t. The anode slime rate is 3.61%, and the unit power consumption of lead electrolysis is 166.24 kWh/t. Valuable metals such as Bi, Sb, Ag and Au are significantly enriched in the anode slime, with Au enriched to 185.30 g/t, and the contents of Ag, Sb and Bi increase to 0.415%, 23.63% and 34.42% respectively. The scattered granular anode electrolysis new technology for crude lead realizes the selective dissolution of lead from high-impurity crude lead by increasing the actual anode area and reducing the anode current density. Compared with the traditional process, the new technology has lower anode residual rate and electrolysis power consumption, cancels the pyrometallurgical refining pretreatment link, shortened the production process, reduced the energy consumption of fuel, equipment and subsequent slag treatment in the pyrometallurgical impurity removal process, and significantly reduced the comprehensive energy consumption of the whole process. Meanwhile, the efficient enrichment of valuable metals in the anode slime avoids the loss of valuable metals with slag in the traditional pyrometallurgical refining, which realize the direct separation and purification of smelted crude lead and the efficient recovery of valuable metals at the same time. The research results provide a new technical path for simplifying the crude lead refining process, and the developed scattered anode electrolysis technology has good industrial application potential in the field of crude lead refining, especially for the treatment of high-impurity crude lead from secondary lead resource recovery.
Research on Deep and Enhanced Cobalt Removal from Cobalt-rich Solutions Based on Additive Regulation
Liang Yanhui;Li Cunxiong;Wang Guodong;Wang Zhiyi;Jiang Wei;Liu Junchang;Li An;Zou Wei;Bao Jiayi;An investigation was conducted to optimize a two-stage purification process for deep cobalt removal from high-cobalt zinc sulfate solutions utilizing adjuvant regulation. Traditional purification methods exhibit high zinc powder consumption and low utilization efficiency of solid decobaltation agents. To resolve these procedural limitations, a method employing the intermittent solubilization and batch feeding of auxiliary materials was developed. Copper sulfate and antimony salt solutions were formulated at specific concentrations and applied to the effluent derived from the first-stage purification. The study systematically evaluates the variables influencing cobalt removal efficiency, including the dosage of zinc powder, the concentrations of antimony and copper salts, and the exact feeding patterns of these additives. The experimental results establish the optimal operating conditions for the enhanced second-stage purification. The optimal parameters are identified as a reaction temperature ranging from 85 ℃ to 90 ℃, a reaction duration of 2.0 h to 2.5 h, and a controlled zinc powder dosage of 4.0 g/L. Crucially, the auxiliary materials are introduced via the simultaneous addition of a 10 g/L copper sulfate solution and a 2 g/L antimony salt solution. These solutions are administered in 12 discrete batches at a continuous rate of 0.6 mL every 10 min. The implementation of this optimized multi-batch feeding process successfully reduces the residual cobalt concentration in the purified liquid to below 0.5 mg/L, satisfying the strict requirements for subsequent electrowinning. Furthermore, the process yields a substantial decrease in reagent usage, reducing the specific consumption of zinc powder from 70 kg/t of zinc sheet to approximately 35 kg/t of zinc sheet. To elucidate the fundamental mechanism by which these specific additives enhanced cobalt precipitation, the solid residues were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy(SEM), X-ray diffraction(XRD), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy(XPS). The microstructural and compositional analyses indicate that during the cementation process with zinc powder, the soluble antimony reacts with cobalt and copper to generate distinct solid-state intermetallic compounds, primarily identified as Co-Sb and Co-Cu alloy phases. The precipitation of these intermetallic phases effectively immobilizes the cobalt ions and inhibits the re-dissolution of cobalt back into the aqueous phase. Concurrently, copper and antimony co-deposited directly onto the zinc powder surface, establishing highly active Cu-Zn and Sb-Zn microcell systems. The formation of these localized microcells cause a negative shift in the local cathodic potential, which significantly lower the thermodynamic energy barrier required for cobalt precipitation and accelerate the overall electron transfer rate. Ultimately, the multi-batch solution feeding methodology prevents the formation of localized concentration gradients within the reaction system. This uniform distribution maximizes the reactive surface area and substantially improves the overall utilization efficiency of the antimony salts, enabling efficient deep decobaltation in complex hydrometallurgical solutions.
Study on the Adsorption Kinetics of Antimony and Bismuth from Copper Electrolyte by TP260 Resin
Liu Pengyuan;Zheng Chaozhen;Diao Mengxiao;Liu Sanping;Wang Haibei;During the copper electrolytic refining process, antimony(Sb) and bismuth(Bi) in the electrolyte are prone to hydrolysis to form floating anode slime, which adsorbs onto the cathode surface to form physical inclusions, reducing the purity and surface quality of the cathode copper. Traditional removal methods have shortcomings such as high energy consumption, secondary pollution or complex operation, while ion exchange methods demonstrate industrial potential with advantages such as simplicity, free secondary pollution and renewability. This study determines the adsorption behavior and rate-controlling mechanisms of Sb and Bi removal from high-acidity copper electrolyte by Lewatit® MonoPlus TP260 aminomethylphosphonic acid chelating resin under conditions simulating industrial electrolyte with fluctuating impurity levels. Static batch adsorption experiments were performed with synthetic copper electrolyte containing 45 g/L Cu, 150 g/L H2 SO4, and Sb and Bi concentrations of 0.03–0.15 g/L. The TP260 resin(aminomethylphosphonic acid functional groups on macroporous styrene-divinylbenzene matrix, exchange capacity 2.4 mmol/g) was preconditioned by successive 4% HCl and 4% NaOH(mass concentration) treatments. Adsorption tests varied resin dosage(20–100 g/L), temperature(20–70 ℃), and contact time(1–180 min). Residual Sb, Bi, and Cu concentrations were measured by ICP-OES. Removal efficiency was calculated as η=(Co-Ce)/Co×100%. Equilibrium data at initial concentrations of 30–150 mg/L were fitted to Langmuir and Freundlich models. Kinetic data were fitted to the pseudo-second-order model and analyzed by the Weber-Morris intra-particle diffusion model. Regeneration was conducted in a glass column with 4.0 mol/L HCl at 60 ℃ and 2 BV/h; six adsorption-regeneration cycles were completed under optimum conditions. The results show that under the optimum static adsorption conditions(60 g resin/L, 60 ℃, 60 min), Sb removal rate is 96.25% and Bi removal rate is 98.00%, while Cu adsorption is negligible. Removal efficiency increases rapidly with resin dosage up to 60 g/L and then leveled off. Temperature has only a minor effect on Sb removal(96.25%–97.19%) and a slight positive effect on Bi removal. Equilibrium isotherms conform to the Freundlich model(R2=0.9460 for Sb and 0.9393 for Bi). The pseudo-second-order model fits the kinetic data with R2>0.999; calculated equilibrium capacities(1.21 mg/g for Sb and 1.22 mg/g for Bi) deviates by less than 1 % from experimental values. Weber-Morris plots show three linear stages. The intra-particle diffusion rate constants for Sb are 0.083 93 mg/(g · min0.5)(0–5 min), 0.009 12 mg/(g · min0.5)(10–30 min), and 0.001 93 mg/(g · min0.5)(40–180 min), respectively. Corresponding values for Bi are 0.098 95, 0.011 72, and 0.002 11 mg/(g · min0.5), respectively. Dynamic elution with 4.0 mol/L HCl achieves 94.22% Sb and 96.83% Bi desorption within 5 bed volumes. After six cycles, Sb removal rate remains 93.46% and Bi removal rate remains 95.72%; desorption efficiencies stay above 92%. Adsorption of Sb and Bi onto TP260 resin follows multilayer heterogeneous coverage described by the Freundlich isotherm. The process is controlled primarily by chemisorption between aminomethylphosphonic acid groups and SbO+/BiO+ species. WeberMorris analysis confirms a multi-step mechanism in which liquid-film diffusion and surface chelation dominates the initial 0–5 min, intra-particle diffusion governs the 10–30 min interval, and equilibrium is approached after 60 min. The resin shows stable regenerability, retaining more than 97% of initial capacity after six cycles. These kinetic and regeneration parameters provide a quantitative basis for fixed-bed purification systems that integrate with existing copper electrorefining circuits. The three-stage Weber-Morris diffusion behavior supplies explicit rate constants and boundary-layer contributions for this resin in copper electrolyte matrices. The cycle stability data under identical conditions supplies practical lifetime estimates and acid consumption figures for process costing.
Recent Development in Nickel and Cobalt Recovery Technologies from Laterite
LIU Da-xing (Beijing General Research Institute of Mining and Metallurgy , Beijing 100044, China)Laterite deposits and relevant metallurgical processes were introduced in this paper The recent deve lopment of hydrometallurgy processes for laterite and its impact on nickel and cobalt industry were reviewed
Principles and Technologies for Remediation of Heavy Metal Contaminated Soil
ZHANG Yi-shuo;ZHOU Zhong-kui;YANG Shun-jing;LI Rui;LI Long-xiang;LI Jing-yu;FAN Xiao-lei;Heavy metal pollution can lead to changes in ecological structure, function, and physicochemical properties of soil, greatly reduce crop yields, harm ecological environment and human health, and has become one of the major global environmental pollutants in the world.In order to repair soil heavy metal pollution, several soil remediation technologies have been developed.The principles, advantages and disadvantages, applicability and technical feasibility of various remediation technologies were discussed.The combined remediation technologies should be the key research direction of concern for solving soil heavy metal pollution problem in the future.
Status and Development of Gold Extraction from Refractory Gold Ore
SUN Liu-gen;YUAN Chao-xin;WANG Yun;SUN Yan-wen;CHANG Yao-chao;XU Xiao-hui;DU Qi-ping;LIU Yong-tao;Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy;Processing mechanism,latest research and application status of refractory gold concentrate by cyanidation and non-cyanidation were briefly introduced.Advantages and disadvantages of each method were analyzed.The development direction of processing refractory gold ore was proposed.
Study on De-Arsenic from Dust of Flash Smelting Furnace
LIANG Yong1,LI Liang-xing1,LIAO Chun-fa1,SHI Yu-chen2(1.School of Material and Chemical Engineering,Jiangxi University of Science & Technology,Ganzhou,Jiangxi 341000,China;2.China Railway Resources Group Co.,Ltd,Beijing 100039,China)The de-arsenic from the dust of copper flash smelting furnace applying the pyrometallurgical method is studied.The effect of temperature,roasting time and coke additive on de-arsenic is investigated using the orthogonal experiment.The results indicate that de-arsenic rate is above 80% and the recovery of copper is above 95% under the conditions of 1 100 ℃ roasting temperature,1 h roasting time and 12% coke additive.
Status and Development of Antimony Metallurgy Technology in China
WANG Cheng yan, QIU Ding fan, JIANG Pei hai (Beijing General Research Institute of Mining & Metallurgy, Beijing 100044, China)Jamesonite, the major mineral of antimony in Guangxi province of China, is very difficult to be treated For treating it, many institutes of China have studied a lot of new hydrometallurgy technology in recently year Sixprocesses have been introduced in this paper The Slurry Electrolysis technology is introduced in focal point
Principles and Technologies for Remediation of Heavy Metal Contaminated Soil
ZHANG Yi-shuo;ZHOU Zhong-kui;YANG Shun-jing;LI Rui;LI Long-xiang;LI Jing-yu;FAN Xiao-lei;Heavy metal pollution can lead to changes in ecological structure, function, and physicochemical properties of soil, greatly reduce crop yields, harm ecological environment and human health, and has become one of the major global environmental pollutants in the world.In order to repair soil heavy metal pollution, several soil remediation technologies have been developed.The principles, advantages and disadvantages, applicability and technical feasibility of various remediation technologies were discussed.The combined remediation technologies should be the key research direction of concern for solving soil heavy metal pollution problem in the future.
Review on Recycling Technology of Retired LiFePO4 Batteries
WANG Meng;ZHANG Jia-liang;CHEN Yong-qiang;WANG Cheng-yan;In recent years, the new energy vehicles and energy storage fields develop rapidly in China.The usage of lithium iron phosphate battery rises sharply.In the future, a large number of retired lithium iron phosphate batteries will be generated, the recycling of which will not only alleviate the problem of lithium resource shortage in China but also reduce the environmental pollution caused by fluorinated electrolyte.The research on recycling of retired lithium iron phosphate batteries in recent years was reviewed, including lithium battery pretreatment, repair technologies for spent lithium iron phosphate cathode material, hydrometallurgical recovery, selective lithium extraction method, and recovery of lithium extraction tailing, etc.The latest research results of each technology were summarized.The advantages and disadvantages of each process were analyzed from the aspects of economics of the process, recovery rate and environmental impact and other aspects.The future development direction of recycling technology of retired lithium iron phosphate batteries was prospected.
Research Progress in Recycling Technology of Cathode Materials for Spent Lithium Iron Phosphate Batteries
WU De-you;LIU Zhi-qiang;RAO Shuai;ZHANG Kui-fang;Guangdong Research Institute of Rare Metal;With rapid development of new energy vehicles,a large number of waste batteries will be generated after retirement of LiFePO4 power batteries.It will pollute environment and waste metal resources if they are not disposed of in time.Recycling technology progress of spent LiFePO4 cathode materials in recent years was introduced,including hydrometallurgical recovery of valuable metals,repair and regeneration of spent LiFePO4 and decomposition and resynthesis of LiFePO4,etc.Advantages and disadvantages of different recycling methods were pointed out.Development direction of spent LiFePO4 batteries recycling technology was prospected.
Carbon Emission Accounting Method and Strategy Analysis under the Background of Double Carbon: Taking Copper and Aluminum Industry as an Example
WANG Wei;WU Jing-jing;GE Ya-ping;LI Qi-ke;As a major carbon emitter in the non-ferrous metals industry, its task of carbon reduction and emission reduction is of great significance.On the basis of expounding the methods and steps of carbon emission accounting, combined with copper and aluminum industries, taking copper smelting enterprises A and electrolytic aluminum plants B as examples, the carbon emissions of copper and aluminum enterprises were calculated respectively.The results show that annual carbon emission of copper smelting enterprises A is 162 kt, and annual carbon emission of electrolytic aluminum enterprises B is 4 140.7 kt.Under the dual carbon strategic goal(carbon peak and carbon neutralization),carbon reduction and emission reduction strategies such as new energy industry upgrading and capacity structure transfer in the field of copper and aluminum are put forward.
Development Status and Trend of Flue Gas Desulfuration in China
LIANG Dong-dong;LI Da-jiang;GUO Chi-hao;SUN Liu-gen;CHANG Yao-chao;HUANG Hai-hui;Beijing General Research Institute of Mining and Metallurgy;Application,research development,and principle and characteristics of flue gas desulfurization technology were summarized.New desulfurization technologies already put forward were described.The desulphurization technology development in China was prospected.The development of desulfurization technologies feasible for industrial production in China was put forwarded.
